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Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Disorders of water and sodium balance are among the most common in the clinical setting and require a clear understanding of osmolality.
Hyponatremia is defined as plasma sodium concentration falling below 135 mEq/L.
Acute hyponatremia has been associated with postoperative complications, oxytocin infusions, cyclophosphamide infusions, exercise, and water intoxication (eg, methylenedioxymethamphetamine).
Chronic hyponatremia can be found in hypovolemic (eg, diarrhea, diuretics, hypoaldosteronism), euvolemic (eg, SIADH, AIDS, hypothyroidism), and hypervolemic states (eg, renal failure, cirrhosis).

Because of the complex nature of clinical trial design, significant resources and infrastructure are invested in drug development. Many drugs fail to progress beyond the phase I/II stage, and many phase III trials take years to accrue and publish results, leading to a delay in Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval for diseases that desperately need better therapeutic options. The relatively recent FDA Safety and Innovation Act has allowed for the creation of priority and expedited review for drugs and biologics in serious conditions and where there is an unmet medical need. The designation of fast-track or breakthrough therapy may be granted when there is preclinical or clinical evidence to suggest that the intervention may result in a substantial improvement over currently available therapies.
Prior to embarking on a clinical trial, data entry, editing (“cleaning”), and analysis should be anticipated. Planning for data management begins with developing rules for coding the variables for computer entry. The appropriate hardware and software programs should be selected and standardized across study sites.
A type I error (false positive) occurs if an investigator rejects a null hypothesis that is true in the population. A type II error (false negative) occurs if the investigator fails to reject a null hypothesis that is false in the population. Neither of these errors can be avoided entirely.

Labor pain is a complex entity, and no single therapy is right for all patients.
Inhalation of nitrous oxide and intramuscular/intravenous opioids provide mild to moderate pain relief with side effects of nausea and sedation.
The development of low-dose epidural medications has decreased the side effects of this modality while still providing excellent pain relief.
Short-acting, lipophilic opioids administered by patient-controlled analgesia can provide good pain relief for many patients.
Providing analgesic medications, whether inhalational, intramuscular/intravenous, or neuraxial, does not affect the duration of labor or the mode of delivery in randomized studies.

Nephrology